A Psicologia do Terrorismo
Causas, Consequências e Futuro da Ameaça Terrorista Internacional
Palavras-chave:
Terrorismo, Psicologia, Radicalização, Recrutamento, Segurança Transnacional, Medidas de Contraterrorismo
Resumo
O processo evolutivo do terrorismo de índole islamista tem vindo a ser testemunhado a nível internacional no decurso das últimas décadas. O denominador comum da acção terrorista perpetrada por células independentes, grupos e organizações terroristas, que almeja propagar o terror e condicionar a liberdade humana, traduz-se em variáveis disposicionais e extrínsecas passíveis de ser interpretadas com recurso ao domínio das ciências sociais, nomeadamente da Psicologia. Ainda que este fenómeno represente uma ameaça relativamente recente no continente Europeu, emerge, cada vez mais, a necessidade de atentar nas variáveis e dinâmicas conducentes a processos de radicalização e recrutamento, agora com o seu foco em populações mais jovens e accionados no interior dos seus próprios países de origem, onde vários ataques acabam por ser, por si, perpetrados. Considerando a ameaça para a segurança transnacional que o terrorismo representa, e perante o cenário de retorno de combatentes vinculados a grupos e organizações terroristas às suas nações, a Psicologia do Terrorismo acentua a sua importância, dispondo as bases para o desenvolvimento de medidas de contraterrorismo eficazes ao debruçar-se sobre a conduta, identidade e motivação daqueles que são os mártires de uns, e os inimigos de outros: os terroristas.
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Referências
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Atran, S. (2003, March 7). Genesis of Suicide Terrorism. Science, 299, 1534–1539.
Bandura, A. (2017). Mechanisms of moral disengagement. In Insurgent Terrorism (85–115). Routledge.
Ben-Gershon, B., Grinshpoon, A., & Ponizovsky, A. (2005). Mental Health Services. Preparing for the Psychological Consequences of Terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 10(3), 743–753.
Berger, J. M. (2018). Extremism. MIT Press.
Bernholz, P. (2004). Supreme values as the basis for terror. European Journal of Political Economy, 20, 317–333.
Bongar, B. (2007). The psychology of terrorism: Defining the need and describing the goals. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (3–12). Oxford University Press.
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., et al. (2006). Psychological First Aid: Field operations guide. 2nd ed., Los Angeles: National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD.
Crenshaw, M. (2000). The psychology of terrorism: An agenda for the 21st century. Political Psychology, 21(2), 405–420.
Devilly, G. J., & Cotton, P. (2004). Caveat emptor, caveat venditor, and critical incident stress debriefing/management (CISD/M). Australian Psychologist, 39, 35–40.
Ellis, B. H., & Abdi, S. (2017). Building community resilience to violent extremism through genuine partnerships. American Psychologist, 72(3), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000065
Félix, C. (2004). Breve Incursão Histórica, Social e Psicológica sobre o Terrorismo. Revista Nação e Defesa, 2(109), 153–174.
García-Vera, M. P., & Sanz, J. (2016). Repercusiones psicopatológicas de los atentados terroristas en las víctimas adultas y su tratamiento: estado de la cuestión. Papeles del Psicólogo, 37(3), 198-204.
García-Vera, M. P., Sanz, J., & Sanz-García, A. (2021). Ten things every psychologist should know about treating psychological disorders in victims of terrorism. Psicothema, 33(2), 177–187.
Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. International Journal of Criminology Penology, 1, 69–97.
Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., et al. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 7, 283–315.
Hogg, M. A. (2006). Social Identity Theory. In P. J. Burke (Ed.), Contemporary social psychological theories (111–136). Stanford University Press.
Horgan, J. G., & Taylor, M. (2011). Disengagement, De-radicalization and the Arc of Terrorism: Future Directions for Research. In Coolsaet, R. (Ed.), Jihadi Terrorism and the Radicalization Challenge.
Horgan, J. G. (2017). Psychology of terrorism: Introduction to the special issue. The American Psychologist, 72(3), 199–204.
Inácio, A., & Araújo, D. (2018). Um novo paradigma para a segurança: atores de segurança interna. Proelium, VII(14), 23–28.
Jovem austríaca morta à martelada por membros do EI. (2015, 26 de Novembro). SÁBADO. https://www.sabado.pt/mundo/detalhe/jovem-austriaca-morta-a-martelada-por-membros-do-ei
Khosrokhavar, F. (2009). Jihadism in Europe and the Middle East. Islamism as Social Movement, 37–44.
Martins, R. (2010). Acerca de “Terrorismo” e de “Terrorismos.” Instituto da Defesa Nacional.
McCauley, C. (2007). Psychological Issues in Understanding Terrorism and the Response to Terrorism. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (13-29). Oxford University Press.
McDermott, R., & Zimbardo, P. (2007). The psychological consequences of terrorist alerts. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (357-369). Oxford University Press.
Merari, A. (2007). Psychological aspects of terrorism. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (111-113). Oxford University Press.
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority: An experimental view. New York: Harper & Row.
Moghaddam, F. M., & Marsella, A. J. (Eds.). (2003). Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences and interventions. American Psychological Association.
Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological explanation. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169.
Orlando gay nightclub shooting: Who was Omar Mateen? (2016, 14 de Junho). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-36513468
Pereira, M. (2015). Modelos de Intervenção Psicossocial em Catástrofe. In Ordem dos Psicólogos Portugueses (Ed.), Intervenção Psicológica em Crise e Catástrofe (210–215).
Post, J. (2007). Terrorisms and Terrorist Psychologies: An Introduction. In J. Post (Ed.), The mind of the terrorist: The psychology of terrorism from the IRA to Al-qaeda (1–9). St. Martin’s Press.
Robertson, M., Pfefferbaum, B., Codispoti, C.R., & Montgomery, J.M. (2007). Integrating authorities and disciplines into the preparedness-planning process: A study of mental health, public health, and emergency management. American Journal of Disaster Management, 2(3), 133–142.
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, 10, 174–221.
Ruby, C. L. (2002). Are terrorists mentally deranged? Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2(1), 15–26.
Ruzek, J. I., Maguen, S., & Litz, B. T. (2007). Evidence-Based Interventions for Survivors of Terrorism. In Bongar, B, M., Brown, L. M., Beutler, L. E., Breckenridge, J. N., & Zimbardo, P. G. (Eds.), Psychology of terrorism. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 247-272.
Schmid, A. P. (2011). The Routledge handbook of terrorism research. Routledge.
Soares, F. (2018). A Radicalização Salafista-Jihadista na Europa: O Caso dos Imigrantes de Segunda e Terceira Geração Conectados Com o Islão. PROELIUM, 7, 87–106.
Strindberg, A. (2020). Social Identity Theory and the Study of Terrorism and Violent Extremism.
Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Sciences Information. Information Sur Les Sciences Sociales, 13(2), 65–93.
Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). Trust in the law. Nova Iorque: Russell Sage Foundation.
Victoroff, J. (2005). The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(1), 3–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704272040
Zimbardo, P. G. (2004). A situationist perspective on the psychology of evil: Understanding how good people are transformed into perpetrators. In A. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil: Understanding our capacity for kindness and cruelty. New York: Guilford.
Zimbardo, P. G. (1995). The psychology of evil: A situationist perspective on recruiting good people to engage in anti-social acts. Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 11(2), 125–133.
Atran, S. (2003, March 7). Genesis of Suicide Terrorism. Science, 299, 1534–1539.
Bandura, A. (2017). Mechanisms of moral disengagement. In Insurgent Terrorism (85–115). Routledge.
Ben-Gershon, B., Grinshpoon, A., & Ponizovsky, A. (2005). Mental Health Services. Preparing for the Psychological Consequences of Terrorism. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 10(3), 743–753.
Berger, J. M. (2018). Extremism. MIT Press.
Bernholz, P. (2004). Supreme values as the basis for terror. European Journal of Political Economy, 20, 317–333.
Bongar, B. (2007). The psychology of terrorism: Defining the need and describing the goals. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (3–12). Oxford University Press.
Brymer, M., Jacobs, A., Layne, C., Pynoos, R., Ruzek, J., Steinberg, A., et al. (2006). Psychological First Aid: Field operations guide. 2nd ed., Los Angeles: National Child Traumatic Stress Network and National Center for PTSD.
Crenshaw, M. (2000). The psychology of terrorism: An agenda for the 21st century. Political Psychology, 21(2), 405–420.
Devilly, G. J., & Cotton, P. (2004). Caveat emptor, caveat venditor, and critical incident stress debriefing/management (CISD/M). Australian Psychologist, 39, 35–40.
Ellis, B. H., & Abdi, S. (2017). Building community resilience to violent extremism through genuine partnerships. American Psychologist, 72(3), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000065
Félix, C. (2004). Breve Incursão Histórica, Social e Psicológica sobre o Terrorismo. Revista Nação e Defesa, 2(109), 153–174.
García-Vera, M. P., & Sanz, J. (2016). Repercusiones psicopatológicas de los atentados terroristas en las víctimas adultas y su tratamiento: estado de la cuestión. Papeles del Psicólogo, 37(3), 198-204.
García-Vera, M. P., Sanz, J., & Sanz-García, A. (2021). Ten things every psychologist should know about treating psychological disorders in victims of terrorism. Psicothema, 33(2), 177–187.
Haney, C., Banks, C., & Zimbardo, P. (1973). Interpersonal dynamics in a simulated prison. International Journal of Criminology Penology, 1, 69–97.
Hobfoll, S. E., Watson, P., Bell, C. C., Bryant, R. A., Brymer, M. J., Friedman, M. J., et al. (2007). Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: Empirical evidence. Psychiatry, 7, 283–315.
Hogg, M. A. (2006). Social Identity Theory. In P. J. Burke (Ed.), Contemporary social psychological theories (111–136). Stanford University Press.
Horgan, J. G., & Taylor, M. (2011). Disengagement, De-radicalization and the Arc of Terrorism: Future Directions for Research. In Coolsaet, R. (Ed.), Jihadi Terrorism and the Radicalization Challenge.
Horgan, J. G. (2017). Psychology of terrorism: Introduction to the special issue. The American Psychologist, 72(3), 199–204.
Inácio, A., & Araújo, D. (2018). Um novo paradigma para a segurança: atores de segurança interna. Proelium, VII(14), 23–28.
Jovem austríaca morta à martelada por membros do EI. (2015, 26 de Novembro). SÁBADO. https://www.sabado.pt/mundo/detalhe/jovem-austriaca-morta-a-martelada-por-membros-do-ei
Khosrokhavar, F. (2009). Jihadism in Europe and the Middle East. Islamism as Social Movement, 37–44.
Martins, R. (2010). Acerca de “Terrorismo” e de “Terrorismos.” Instituto da Defesa Nacional.
McCauley, C. (2007). Psychological Issues in Understanding Terrorism and the Response to Terrorism. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (13-29). Oxford University Press.
McDermott, R., & Zimbardo, P. (2007). The psychological consequences of terrorist alerts. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (357-369). Oxford University Press.
Merari, A. (2007). Psychological aspects of terrorism. In B. Bongar, L. Brown, L. Beutler, J. Breckenridge, & P. Zimbardo (Eds.), Psychology of Terrorism (111-113). Oxford University Press.
Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority: An experimental view. New York: Harper & Row.
Moghaddam, F. M., & Marsella, A. J. (Eds.). (2003). Understanding terrorism: Psychosocial roots, consequences and interventions. American Psychological Association.
Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological explanation. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169.
Orlando gay nightclub shooting: Who was Omar Mateen? (2016, 14 de Junho). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-36513468
Pereira, M. (2015). Modelos de Intervenção Psicossocial em Catástrofe. In Ordem dos Psicólogos Portugueses (Ed.), Intervenção Psicológica em Crise e Catástrofe (210–215).
Post, J. (2007). Terrorisms and Terrorist Psychologies: An Introduction. In J. Post (Ed.), The mind of the terrorist: The psychology of terrorism from the IRA to Al-qaeda (1–9). St. Martin’s Press.
Robertson, M., Pfefferbaum, B., Codispoti, C.R., & Montgomery, J.M. (2007). Integrating authorities and disciplines into the preparedness-planning process: A study of mental health, public health, and emergency management. American Journal of Disaster Management, 2(3), 133–142.
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, 10, 174–221.
Ruby, C. L. (2002). Are terrorists mentally deranged? Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2(1), 15–26.
Ruzek, J. I., Maguen, S., & Litz, B. T. (2007). Evidence-Based Interventions for Survivors of Terrorism. In Bongar, B, M., Brown, L. M., Beutler, L. E., Breckenridge, J. N., & Zimbardo, P. G. (Eds.), Psychology of terrorism. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 247-272.
Schmid, A. P. (2011). The Routledge handbook of terrorism research. Routledge.
Soares, F. (2018). A Radicalização Salafista-Jihadista na Europa: O Caso dos Imigrantes de Segunda e Terceira Geração Conectados Com o Islão. PROELIUM, 7, 87–106.
Strindberg, A. (2020). Social Identity Theory and the Study of Terrorism and Violent Extremism.
Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Sciences Information. Information Sur Les Sciences Sociales, 13(2), 65–93.
Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). Trust in the law. Nova Iorque: Russell Sage Foundation.
Victoroff, J. (2005). The Mind of the Terrorist: A Review and Critique of Psychological Approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(1), 3–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704272040
Zimbardo, P. G. (2004). A situationist perspective on the psychology of evil: Understanding how good people are transformed into perpetrators. In A. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil: Understanding our capacity for kindness and cruelty. New York: Guilford.
Zimbardo, P. G. (1995). The psychology of evil: A situationist perspective on recruiting good people to engage in anti-social acts. Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 11(2), 125–133.
Publicado
2024-06-03
Como Citar
Lourenço, Susana. 2024. «A Psicologia Do Terrorismo: Causas, Consequências E Futuro Da Ameaça Terrorista Internacional». De Legibus - Revista De Direito Da Universidade Lusófona Lisboa, n. 5 e 6 (Junho), 135-70. https://doi.org/10.24140/dlb.vi5 e 6.8275.
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Direitos de Autor (c) 2024 De Legibus - Revista de Direito da Universidade Lusófona Lisboa
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